Posts tagged with "on this day"

The Martyrdom of Elijah Lovejoy: A Turning Point for Freedom of the Press and Abolitionism

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On November 7, 1837, a pro-slavery mob in Alton, Illinois, murdered Elijah Parish Lovejoy, an abolitionist newspaper editor. This act of violence sent shockwaves through the nation, marking a turning point in the fight against slavery and the struggle for freedom of the press. Lovejoy’s unwavering commitment to his principles, even in the face of death, cemented his legacy as a martyr for these causes.

Lovejoy’s Tireless Advocacy

Lovejoy’s journey as an abolitionist was marked by relentless persecution. He faced repeated attacks and destruction of his printing presses due to his vocal opposition to slavery and his condemnation of racial violence. Despite these threats, Lovejoy remained resolute, declaring his right to speak and publish freely. His defiance in the face of danger made him a symbol of resistance against the oppressive forces of slavery.

The Alton Tragedy and Its Aftermath

The events leading to Lovejoy’s assassination highlight the deep divisions and tensions that plagued the nation in the antebellum era. The violence inflicted upon him underscored the lengths to which pro-slavery forces would go to silence dissent. However, Lovejoy’s death did not extinguish the flames of abolitionism. Instead, it ignited a firestorm of outrage and galvanized the movement. 

Shaping American Culture, Politics, and Activism

Lovejoy’s martyrdom had a profound impact on American society:

  • Freedom of the Press: His death served as a stark reminder of the importance of protecting free speech and a free press, even when those ideas are unpopular or controversial.
  • Abolitionist Movement: Lovejoy’s sacrifice fueled the abolitionist cause, inspiring others like John Brown to dedicate their lives to ending slavery.
  • Political Discourse: The controversy surrounding Lovejoy’s murder intensified the national debate over slavery, pushing the issue further into the political arena.

Lessons for Future Generations

Lovejoy’s legacy continues to inspire those who fight for justice and equality. His courage and unwavering commitment to his principles offer valuable lessons for future generations of freedom fighters:

  • The Power of Conviction: Lovejoy’s steadfast belief in the cause of abolition, even in the face of grave danger, demonstrates the power of conviction and the importance of standing up for what is right.
  • The Importance of Free Speech: His defense of free speech and a free press underscores their essential role in a democratic society.
  • The Price of Freedom: Lovejoy’s ultimate sacrifice reminds us that the fight for freedom and justice often comes at a great cost.

Memorial card for Reverend Elijah Parish Lovejoy with silhouette. Missouri History Museum Photograph and Prints collections.

Elijah Lovejoy’s story is a testament to the enduring power of ideas and the courage of individuals who dare to challenge injustice. His legacy serves as a beacon of hope and inspiration for those who continue to strive for a more just and equitable world.

Key Takeaways:

  • Elijah Lovejoy’s assassination was a turning point in the fight for freedom of the press and the abolition of slavery.
  • His unwavering commitment to his principles, even in the face of death, made him a powerful symbol of resistance.
  • Lovejoy’s martyrdom inspired and galvanized the abolitionist movement, contributing to the eventual end of slavery in the United States.
  • His legacy continues to inspire those who fight for justice and equality around the world.

Let us remember Elijah Lovejoy as a champion of freedom and a martyr for the cause of justice. His story reminds us that the fight for a better world requires courage, conviction, and an unwavering commitment to the principles of liberty and equality.

John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry: A Turning Point in American History

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On October 16, 1859, abolitionist John Brown led a daring raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia (now West Virginia), in an attempt to ignite a slave rebellion and bring about the end of slavery. Though the raid was quickly suppressed, it had profound and lasting implications for American history and culture.

Brown’s actions were motivated by his deeply held religious beliefs and his conviction that slavery was a moral evil that could only be eradicated through violence. He saw himself as a righteous warrior, willing to sacrifice his own life to achieve his goals.

The raid on Harpers Ferry sent shockwaves through the nation. In the North, Brown was hailed as a hero and martyr by abolitionists, while in the South, he was vilified as a terrorist and a threat to the Southern way of life. The raid deepened the already existing divide between the North and South, intensifying the debate over slavery and pushing the nation closer to civil war. It also highlighted the growing militancy of the abolitionist movement and the willingness of some to use violence to achieve their goals.

In the years that followed, Brown’s image continued to evolve. He became a symbol of both hope and division, a reminder of the country’s troubled past and the ongoing struggle for racial equality.

The legacy of John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry is complex and multifaceted. It was a pivotal moment in American history, one that helped to shape the nation’s identity and its understanding of itself. The raid also raised important questions about the role of violence in social change and the meaning of freedom and equality.

Today, Brown’s raid continues to be a source of debate and discussion. Some see him as a hero who fought for a just cause, while others view him as a fanatic who contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War. Regardless of one’s opinion, there is no doubt that John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry was a watershed event in American history, one that continues to resonate to this day.

Black Americans’ views on John Brown were complex and varied. While some saw him as a hero and martyr for the cause of abolition, others were more wary of his violent methods.

  • Support and admiration: Many black abolitionists, particularly those who had escaped slavery or were actively involved in the Underground Railroad, saw Brown as a courageous figure willing to risk his life for their freedom. They admired his commitment to ending slavery and his willingness to take decisive action.
  • Caution and skepticism: However, not all black Americans supported Brown’s methods. Some were concerned that his violent tactics could lead to further repression and violence against black people. They also worried that his actions could alienate potential white allies and make it more difficult to achieve abolition through peaceful means.

Overall, black Americans’ views on John Brown were shaped by their own experiences and perspectives on the struggle for freedom. While some saw him as a hero, others were more cautious about his methods. However, there is no doubt that Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry had a profound impact on the black community and helped to galvanize support for the abolitionist movement.

Frederick Douglass was involved with John Brown and his plans to raid Harper’s Ferry, but he ultimately declined to participate in the raid itself.

  • Early Support and Collaboration: Douglass met with Brown several times and was sympathetic to his cause. They discussed plans for a large-scale slave uprising, and Douglass even helped Brown recruit supporters and raise funds.
  • Growing Reservations: As Brown’s plans became more concrete, Douglass grew increasingly concerned about the viability and potential consequences of the raid. He believed that the attack on Harper’s Ferry was too risky and unlikely to succeed. Douglass also worried about the potential backlash against black Americans if the raid failed.
  • Decision to Withdraw: Despite his admiration for Brown’s dedication to ending slavery, Douglass ultimately decided not to participate in the raid. He believed that the plan was flawed and that the risks outweighed the potential benefits.

Although Douglass did not join Brown at Harper’s Ferry, his association with the abolitionist leader put him under scrutiny. After the raid, Douglass was forced to flee to Canada to avoid arrest and potential extradition to the United States. Despite the controversy, Douglass continued to speak out against slavery and advocate for the rights of black Americans.

The Silent Protest That Shook a Nation: Remembering Tommie Smith and John Carlos

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The 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City were supposed to be a showcase of athleticism and international unity. However, for two American athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, the games became a platform for a silent protest that would reverberate through American history.

On October 16, 1968, Smith and Carlos, who had placed first and third in the 200-meter dash, respectively, took to the medal podium. As the national anthem played, they bowed their heads and raised black-gloved fists in a powerful gesture against racial inequality and injustice in the United States.

Their protest was met with immediate backlash. They were booed by the crowd, expelled from the Olympic Village, and vilified by the media. However, their courageous act also ignited a national conversation about race and civil rights.

Smith and Carlos’ protest was not simply about their personal experiences; it was a reflection of the broader struggle for racial equality in America. The 1960s was a turbulent decade marked by the Civil Rights Movement, the assassinations of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, and widespread social unrest.

Their raised fists became a symbol of Black Power and unity, a visual representation of the fight for equality and justice. It was a moment that transcended sports, forcing Americans to confront the deep-seated racial divisions within their society.

Today, over five decades later, the legacy of Smith and Carlos’ protest continues to inspire and challenge us. It reminds us that athletes have the power to use their platform to speak out against injustice and to effect social change. It also serves as a stark reminder of the ongoing struggle for racial equality in America.

FILE – In this Sept. 28, 2016, file photo, John Carlos, left, and Tommie Smith pose for a portrait at Georgetown University in Washington. When Smith and Carlos raised their fists 50 years ago at the Mexico City Olympics, they had a captive audience, back in the age when TV was king and the entire audience was rapt. A half-century later, many of the messages our athletes disseminate are every bit as powerful, but the audience is much more distracted. (AP Photo/Sait Serkan Gurbuz, File)

The silent protest of Tommie Smith and John Carlos was a pivotal moment in American history, a moment that forced the nation to confront its own racial demons. It was a courageous act of defiance that helped to pave the way for a more just and equitable society.

Smith and Carlos’ protest reflected the broader struggle for racial equality in America by serving as a visual representation of the fight for equality and justice, and forcing Americans to confront the deep-seated racial divisions within their society. Their actions also embodied the spirit of the Civil Rights Movement and the ongoing fight for social change.

How Smith and Carlos’ protest impacted the national conversation on race and civil rights:

Smith and Carlos’ protest ignited a national conversation about race and civil rights by bringing attention to racial inequality and injustice in the U.S. Their courageous act forced Americans to confront the deep-seated racial divisions within their society and sparked a dialogue about the need for change.

The protest by Tommie Smith and John Carlos at the 1968 Olympics significantly shaped American culture in the following ways:

  • Raising Awareness and Sparking Dialogue: It forced a national conversation about racial inequality and injustice, bringing these issues to the forefront of public discourse.
  • Symbol of Resistance: The raised fists became a powerful symbol of the Black Power movement and the fight for civil rights, inspiring others to stand up against injustice.
  • Challenging the Status Quo: It challenged the notion that athletes should remain silent on social and political issues, paving the way for future athlete activism.
  • Legacy of Activism: It inspired future generations of athletes and activists to use their platforms to advocate for social change.

Overall, the protest had a lasting impact on American culture by raising awareness of racial inequality, inspiring activism, and contributing to the ongoing struggle for a more just and equitable society.

Watch The Moment in America’s Civil Rights History: U.S. Olympic Sprinters Protest at the 1968 Olympics

The Black Panther Party: A Legacy of Resistance and Community Empowerment

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On October 15, 1966, in the wake of Malcolm X’s assassination, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense in Oakland, California. Born out of a need to combat police brutality and systemic racism, the Panthers quickly evolved into a powerful force for social change.

Challenging the Status Quo

The Black Panther Party distinguished itself from other Black nationalist groups by forging alliances with progressive white individuals and organizations. They recognized that the struggle for equality required a united front against oppression. The Panthers also implemented a “Ten Point Program” outlining their key goals, which included demands for full employment, decent housing, education, and an end to police brutality.

Community Programs and Social Services

Beyond their political activism, the Black Panthers were deeply committed to serving their communities. They established a wide range of social programs, including free breakfast programs for children, health clinics, and legal aid services. These initiatives addressed the immediate needs of marginalized communities and demonstrated the Panthers’ dedication to social justice.

Government Repression and COINTELPRO

The Black Panther Party’s radical agenda and growing influence made them a target of government surveillance and repression. The FBI’s COINTELPRO program, under the direction of J. Edgar Hoover, sought to undermine and dismantle the organization through a campaign of infiltration, disinformation, and violence. Despite these challenges, the Panthers continued their work, inspiring a generation of activists and leaving a lasting legacy of resistance.

The Black Panthers’ Legacy Today

The Black Panther Party’s impact can still be felt today. Their emphasis on community empowerment and self-defense continues to resonate in movements for social justice. The Panthers’ legacy reminds us that the fight for equality requires both direct action and a commitment to building strong, resilient communities.

Additional Information about the Black Panthers:

  • The Black Panther Party’s official newspaper, The Black Panther, played a crucial role in disseminating their message and mobilizing support.
  • The Panthers’ iconic black berets and leather jackets became symbols of their resistance and defiance.
  • Prominent Black Panther Party members included Eldridge Cleaver, Kathleen Cleaver, and Fred Hampton.
  • The Black Panther Party’s free breakfast program served as a model for similar initiatives across the country.

The Black Panther Party’s history is a complex and multifaceted one. They were both revered and reviled, but their impact on the struggle for racial justice is undeniable. By challenging the status quo and empowering marginalized communities, the Panthers helped to pave the way for a more just and equitable American society.

The Ten Point Program outlined the Black Panther Party’s key goals and demands, which included:

  1. We want freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our Black Community.
  2. We want full employment for our people.
  3. We want an end to the robbery by the white man of our Black Community.
  4. We want decent housing, fit for shelter of human beings.
  5. We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our role in the present-day society.
  6. We want all Black men to be exempt from military service.
  7. We want an immediate end to POLICE BRUTALITY and MURDER of Black people.
  8. We want freedom for all Black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails.
  9. We want all Black people when brought to trial to be tried in court by a jury of their peer group or people from their Black Communities, as defined by the Constitution of the United States.
  10. We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice and peace.

The Black Panther Party’s relationship with other Black nationalist groups was also complex and multifaceted. While they shared some common goals and tactics, they also differed on key points.

Areas of Agreement:

  • Black Power: Both the Panthers and other Black nationalist groups advocated for Black power, which meant self-determination and control over the destiny of Black communities.
  • Anti-racism: Both groups were committed to fighting racism and discrimination.
  • Community empowerment: Both groups focused on empowering Black communities through social programs and initiatives.

Areas of Disagreement:

  • Ideology: The Panthers were more influenced by Marxism and socialism than some other Black nationalist groups, who were more focused on cultural nationalism.
  • Tactics: The Panthers were known for their militant tactics, including armed patrols, while some other groups favored non-violent protest.
  • Alliances: The Panthers were willing to forge alliances with progressive white individuals and organizations, while some other Black nationalist groups were more separatist.

Specific Examples:

  • Nation of Islam: The Panthers had a strained relationship with the Nation of Islam, particularly due to the Nation’s focus on Black separatism and its anti-Zionism.
  • Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC): The Panthers and SNCC had a more positive relationship, collaborating on some projects and sharing similar goals.
  • Revolutionary Action Movement (RAM): The Panthers and RAM were close allies, sharing a commitment to armed self-defense and revolutionary action.

Overall, the Black Panther Party’s relationship with other Black nationalist groups was marked by both cooperation and competition. While they shared some common ground, they also had significant differences in ideology, tactics, and alliances.

Here are some additional resources that you may find helpful:

The Black Panther Party’s relationship with the government was highly contentious and marked by intense conflict. The government, particularly the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover, viewed the Black Panthers as a major threat to national security due to their revolutionary ideology, militant stance, and community organizing efforts.

The FBI’s COINTELPRO program targeted the Black Panthers with a range of tactics aimed at disrupting and dismantling the organization. These included surveillance, infiltration, disinformation campaigns, and even inciting violence between the Panthers and rival groups. The government’s actions ultimately contributed to the decline of the Black Panther Party, with many leaders imprisoned, killed, or forced into exile.

The Black Panthers, for their part, saw the government as an oppressive force that perpetuated systemic racism and inequality. They challenged the government’s authority through their activism and community programs, which aimed to empower Black communities and provide essential services that the government was failing to deliver.

Overall, the relationship between the Black Panther Party and the government was characterized by deep distrust, hostility, and a fundamental clash of ideologies. The government’s repressive tactics and the Panthers’ defiant resistance reflected the broader social and political tensions of the era.

The Black Panther Party implemented a variety of community programs, including:

  • Free Breakfast for Children: This program provided nutritious meals to children in underserved neighborhoods, addressing food insecurity and ensuring they had the energy to learn and thrive.
  • Health Clinics: The Panthers established clinics that offered affordable or free healthcare services, including screenings for illnesses like tuberculosis and sickle cell anemia.
  • Legal Aid: The Party provided legal assistance to community members facing legal challenges, helping them navigate the complex legal system and advocating for their rights.
  • Transportation Assistance: The Panthers helped people get to and from essential appointments, such as medical visits and job interviews, by providing transportation services.
  • Ambulance Service: In some areas, the Panthers operated their own ambulance service to ensure prompt and accessible emergency medical care for their communities.
  • Shoe Distribution: The Party manufactured and distributed free shoes to those in need, addressing a basic necessity and promoting dignity.

These programs demonstrated the Black Panther Party’s commitment to addressing the immediate needs of marginalized communities and empowering them to take control of their lives.

The Black Panthers significantly impacted American culture in several ways:

  • Challenging the Status Quo: The Panthers’ bold stance against police brutality and systemic racism forced America to confront its deep-seated racial inequalities. Their militant image and uncompromising demands for justice sparked a national conversation about race and power.
  • Promoting Black Empowerment: The Panthers’ emphasis on self-defense and community empowerment inspired a sense of pride and agency among African Americans. Their message resonated with those who felt marginalized and voiceless, encouraging them to stand up for their rights.
  • Expanding the Civil Rights Movement: The Panthers’ radical approach broadened the scope of the Civil Rights Movement beyond integration and nonviolence. They introduced a more militant and revolutionary element, pushing the movement to address systemic issues like poverty and police brutality.
  • Inspiring Social Programs: The Panthers’ community programs, such as the Free Breakfast for Children, served as a model for similar initiatives across the country. They demonstrated the importance of addressing the immediate needs of marginalized communities and empowering them to take control of their lives.
  • Leaving a Cultural Legacy: The Panthers’ iconic imagery, including their black berets and leather jackets, became symbols of resistance and Black power. Their legacy continues to inspire artists, activists, and movements for social justice today.

Overall, the Black Panthers played a crucial role in shaping American culture by challenging the status quo, promoting Black empowerment, expanding the Civil Rights Movement, inspiring social programs, and leaving a lasting cultural legacy. Their impact can still be felt today in the ongoing fight for racial justice and equality.

The Black Panther Party’s community programs had a significant impact on American culture by:

  • Highlighting social inequalities: The programs exposed the stark disparities in access to basic necessities like food, healthcare, and legal aid, forcing society to confront these issues.
  • Inspiring similar initiatives: The success of programs like the Free Breakfast for Children led to the creation of similar initiatives nationwide, demonstrating the effectiveness of community-led solutions.
  • Shifting perceptions of activism: The Panthers’ focus on direct service challenged traditional views of activism, showing that it could be both confrontational and compassionate.
  • Promoting self-sufficiency: The programs empowered communities to take control of their own needs, fostering a sense of agency and self-reliance.

Overall, the Black Panthers’ community programs left a lasting legacy on American culture by raising awareness of social issues, inspiring other organizations, and redefining activism.

The Black Panthers challenged the status quo in American culture in several key ways:

  • Direct Confrontation of Police Brutality: The Panthers’ armed patrols and monitoring of police activities directly challenged the unchecked power and brutality of law enforcement in Black communities. This bold stance disrupted the accepted norm of police impunity and forced a national conversation about police accountability.
  • Advocacy for Self-Defense: By promoting the right to armed self-defense, the Panthers challenged the prevailing notion that Black people should passively accept violence and oppression. This message of empowerment resonated with those who felt vulnerable and threatened, inspiring a sense of agency and resistance.
  • Radical Political Agenda: The Panthers’ Ten Point Program, which demanded full employment, decent housing, quality education, and an end to police brutality, went beyond the mainstream civil rights agenda of the time. Their demands for systemic change challenged the existing power structures and pushed for a more equitable society.
  • Alliances with White Activists: The Panthers’ willingness to form coalitions with progressive white individuals and organizations challenged the prevailing racial segregation and mistrust. This collaborative approach demonstrated that the fight for social justice transcended racial boundaries and required a united front.
  • Community Programs: The Panthers’ extensive community programs, such as free breakfast for children and health clinics, directly addressed the needs of marginalized communities that were neglected by the government. This grassroots approach challenged the notion that social services should be solely provided by the state and demonstrated the power of community-led initiatives.

Overall, the Black Panthers disrupted the status quo by confronting police brutality, advocating for self-defense, promoting a radical political agenda, forming interracial alliances, and implementing community programs. Their actions challenged the existing power structures, inspired a sense of empowerment among marginalized communities, and paved the way for future social justice movements.

The White House: A Legacy and Global Power Hub Built by Enslaved Black People

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Today marks a significant anniversary in American history. On this day in 1792, construction began on the White House, the iconic symbol of the United States presidency. However, the story of its construction is a complex one, intertwined with the harsh reality of slavery in America.

Enslaved Black Americans played a pivotal role in building the White House. They quarried and cut the stone, performed carpentry, and contributed to nearly every aspect of the construction process. Their labor was essential, yet their contributions have been overlooked or minimized.

In 2016, First Lady Michelle Obama brought this history to the forefront during her speech at the Democratic National Convention. She spoke movingly about the generations of enslaved people who helped build the White House, and the powerful symbolism of her own family living there.

The White House stands as a reminder of both the nation’s achievements and its painful past. It is a testament to the resilience and contributions of Black Americans, whose labor helped shape the nation, even in the face of oppression. As we reflect on this history, it is crucial to acknowledge the full story of the White House and the enduring legacy of those who built it.

It is important to acknowledge the full story of the White House and the legacy of those who built it because:

    • Historical Accuracy: It corrects a historical narrative that often overlooked the contributions of enslaved people.
    • Recognition of Black Contributions: It honors the labor and skills of Black Americans who played a crucial role in building the nation.
    • Understanding the Legacy of Slavery: It provides a deeper understanding of how slavery shaped American history and its enduring impact.
    • Promoting Reconciliation: It fosters a more inclusive and honest dialogue about the nation’s past, which is essential for healing and progress.
    • Reparations: The issue of reparations for Black Americans is not a complex one, considering the long history of American slavery and the contributions of enslaved Black people.

    The White House represents a dual legacy:

    • Symbol of Achievement: It is the iconic home of the U.S. presidency, representing the nation’s power and democracy.
    • Reminder of Slavery’s History: Its construction by enslaved people embodies the painful history of slavery and its role in building the nation.

    This duality highlights the complexity of American history, showcasing both its triumphs and its deep-rooted injustices. 

    Some of the most common reasons cited by proponents of reparations include:

    • To compensate Black Americans for the unpaid labor of their ancestors. During the era of slavery, Black people were forced to work without compensation, enriching white slave owners and their descendants. This unpaid labor built the wealth of the United States, and reparations are seen as a way to redress this historical injustice.
    • To address the ongoing legacy of slavery and racism. The effects of slavery continue to be felt today, with Black Americans facing systemic disadvantages in areas such as education, housing, employment, and healthcare. Reparations are seen as a way to address these inequalities and create a more just society.
    • To promote racial healing and reconciliation. The history of slavery is a painful one for Black and some white Americans. Reparations are seen as a way to acknowledge this history and begin the process of healing and reconciliation.

    It is important to note that there is no consensus on the specific form that reparations should take. Some people believe that reparations should be financial, while others believe that they should take the form of policy changes or social programs. There is also debate about who should be eligible for reparations, and how much they should receive. The issue of reparations is an important one to discuss. The history of slavery is a dark stain on American history, and its effects continue to be felt today. Reparations are one way to begin to address this history and create a more just and equitable society.

    According to a 2020 poll by the Pew Research Center, 60% of Black Americans believe that the U.S. government should pay reparations to Black Americans for slavery and its legacy. However, only 20% of white Americans agree. The issue of reparations is likely to continue to be debated for many years to come. However, it is an important conversation to have, as it forces us to confront the dark side of American history and to think about how we can create a more just and equitable future, especially as we commemorate the building of powerful institutions like the White House built by enslaved Black people in America.

    A History Of Racial Injustice

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    On this day — Apr 05, 1880

    Black West Point Cadet Brutally Beaten by White Students Days Before Graduation

    In the early hours of the morning on April 5, 1880, Cadet Johnson Whittaker, one of the first Black students in the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, was brutally beaten by white cadets while sleeping in his barracks. Three white cadets ambushed Cadet Whittaker, slashed his head and ears, burned his Bible, threatened his life, and then left him in his underwear, tied to the bed and bleeding profusely.

    Born enslaved in South Carolina in 1858, Cadet Whittaker received a congressional appointment to the U.S. Military Academy in 1876. For most of his time at West Point, Cadet Whittaker was the only Black cadet at the institution; he endured social exclusion and racial terrorism perpetrated at the hands of white cadets and faculty alike. Twenty-three Black cadets attended West Point between 1870 and 1890, but due to the violent discrimination that they faced, only three graduated. Cadet Whittaker would later testify that he had “read and heard about the treatment that [Black] cadets received there, and expected to be ostracized.”

    After Cadet Whittaker reported to West Point administrators that he had been attacked, the institution opened an investigation into him and declined to hold his white attackers accountable. Administrators instead claimed that Cadet Whittaker had staged the attack to get out of his final exams, and in May, a West Point court of inquiry found Cadet Whittaker guilty of that charge. He was forced to take his final exams while incarcerated and withstand court-martial proceedings in New York City where the army prosecutor repeatedly referred to Black people as an “inferior race” known to “feign and sham.”

    In January 1881, Brigadier General N.A. Miles affirmed Cadet Whittaker’s conviction and authorized him to be expelled from West Point, dishonorably discharged from the military, and held for continued imprisonment. Cadet Whittaker’s case was ultimately forwarded to President Chester A. Arthur for approval, and, a year later, President Arthur issued an executive order overturning the conviction based on a finding that military prosecutors had relied on improperly admitted evidence. By the time of President Arthur’s intervention, Cadet Whittaker had been incarcerated for nearly two years; even after his conviction was overturned, West Point reinstated Cadet Whittaker’s expulsion, claiming he had failed an exam.

    Johnson Whittaker went on to work in several professional fields and raise a family, including several generations of descendants who served in the U.S. military. In 1995, more than 60 years after his death, Mr. Whittaker’s heirs accepted the commission he would have received upon graduating West Point. At the ceremony, President Bill Clinton remarked: “We cannot undo history. But today, finally, we can pay tribute to a great American and we can acknowledge a great injustice.”

    To learn more the racial discrimination and violence Black service members and veterans have faced in the U.S. military, explore EJI’s report, Lynching in America: Targeting Black Veterans.

    Portrait of Cadet Whittaker at the court-martial proceedings. (Library of Congress)